Ledger art is a term for narrative drawing or painting on paper or cloth, predominantly practiced by

Plains Indian Plains Indians or Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies are the Native American tribes and First Nation band governments who have historically lived on the Interior Plains (the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies) of N ...

, but also from the

Plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; ), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides ha ...

and

Great Basin The Great Basin is the largest area of contiguous endorheic basin, endorheic watersheds, those with no outlets, in North America. It spans nearly all of Nevada, much of Utah, and portions of California, Idaho, Oregon, Wyoming, and Baja California ...

. Ledger art flourished primarily from the 1860s to the 1920s. A revival of ledger art began in the 1960s and 1970s. The term comes from the accounting

ledger A ledger is a book or collection of accounts in which account transactions are recorded. Each account has an opening or carry-forward balance, and would record each transaction as either a debit or credit in separate columns, and the ending or ...

books that were a common source of paper for

Plains Indians Plains Indians or Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies are the Native American tribes and First Nation band governments who have historically lived on the Interior Plains (the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies) of N ...

during the late 19th century. Battle exploits were the most frequently represented themes in ledger art. Many ledger artists documented the rapidly changing environment by portraying new technologies such as trains, as well as encounters with European Americans and American soldiers. Other themes such as religious practices, hunting, and courtship were also subjects. Many ledger artists worked together with ethnologists, to document cultural information such as shield and tipi designs, winter counts, dances and regalia.

Historical precedents

Ledger art evolved from

Plains hide painting Plains hide painting is a traditional Plains Indian artistic practice of painting on either tanned or raw animal hides. Tipis, tipi liners, shields, parfleches, robes, clothing, drums, and winter counts could all be painted. Genres Art historian J ...

."Ledger Art History."
''Department of Ethnic Studies, University of California San Diego: Plains Indian Ledger Art Project.'' 2011 (retrieved 2 Oct 2011) Among Plains tribes, women have historically painted abstract geometrical designs, such as those found in

parfleche A parfleche is a Native American rawhide container that is embellished by painting, incising, or both. Envelope-shaped parfleches have historically been used to contain items such household tools or foods, such as dried meat or pemmican. They w ...

s, whereas men paint representational designs. The men's designs were often heraldic devices or visions painted on shields,

tipi A tipi , often called a lodge in English, is a conical tent, historically made of animal hides or pelts, and in more recent generations of canvas, stretched on a framework of wooden poles. The word is Siouan languages, Siouan, and in use in Dakot ...

s, shirts, leggings, or robes. Before the Plains tribes were forced to live on reservations in the 1870s, men generally painted personal feats in battle or hunting. Plains ledger art depicted communally acknowledged events of valor and tribal importance in order to gain status for the individuals who participated in them, and their band and kin. Plains pictorial art emphasizes narrative action and eliminates unnecessary detail or backgrounds. Figures tended to be drawn in hard outlines and filled with solid fields of color. These narrative works were all historically painted on animal hides – particularly buffalo hides. When buffalo became scarce after the US federal government's eradication programs, Plains artists began painting and drawing on paper, canvas, and muslin.

Subject matter

Battle exploits dominated ledger art. Other themes such as hunting, courtship,Fauntleroy, Gussie
"Ledger Art: Looking Between the Lines."
''Native Peoples.'' Sept/Oct 2011 (retrieved 7 Aug 2011) and religious practices were common subjects. Ledger artists also documented their rapidly changing environment by portraying encroaching European Americans and new technologies such as trains and cameras. Many ledger artists worked with ethnologists, by documenting shield and tipi designs, ethnobotanical information,

winter count Winter counts (Lakota: ''waníyetu wówapi'' or ''waníyetu iyáwapi'') are pictorial calendars or histories in which tribal records and events were recorded by Native Americans in North America. The Blackfeet, Mandan, Kiowa, Lakota, and other Pla ...

s, dance customs and regalia, and other cultural information. Dreams and visions inspired ledger art just as they had inspired earlier hide paintings. The artists creating ledger art today often reference pre-reservation lifeways, historical transitions, and social commentary. They use this style to illustrate cultural continuity between historical and contemporary Native life.

New materials

An increasing supply of ledger books and other paper came from traders, government agents, missionaries, and military officers. With these came pencils, ink fountain pens, crayons, and watercolor paints. These new tools allowed for greater detail and experimentation than the earlier tools, such as bone or wood styli dipped in mineral pigments, had. The compact ledger books and pencils were highly portable, making them ideal for nomadic lifestyles.

Communal authorship

The creation of ledger art at times involved communal authorship, with more than one artist contributing to an individual drawing, and several artists working within a specific ledger book. Many of the earlier ledger book drawings contained several signature glyphs, suggesting shared authorship. Examples of shared authorship are found in the Dog Soldiers ledgers, in which many of the drawings attributed to Bear with Feathers indicate that he drew the human figures, but another artist drew the horses. In 1877, a Northern Arapaho man named Friday, ally of the Northern Cheyenne, described communal drawing to Army Lt. John G. Bourke, stating that it was "extremely common" for close friends to draw in each other's books.

Fort Marion

Some well-known ledger artists were prisoners of war at

Fort Marion The Castillo de San Marcos (Spanish for "St. Mark's Castle") is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States; it is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in the city of St. Augustine, Florida. It was designed by the Spanish ...

in St. Augustine, Florida. In 1874, in what became known as the

Red River War The Red River War was a military campaign launched by the United States Army in 1874 to displace the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Native American tribes from the Southern Plains, and forcibly relocate the tribes to reservatio ...

or Buffalo War, a group of

Cheyenne The Cheyenne ( ) are an Indigenous people of the Great Plains. Their Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are enroll ...

Kiowa Kiowa () people are a Native American tribe and an indigenous people of the Great Plains of the United States. They migrated southward from western Montana into the Rocky Mountains in Colorado in the 17th and 18th centuries,Pritzker 326 and eve ...

Comanche The Comanche or Nʉmʉnʉʉ ( com, Nʉmʉnʉʉ, "the people") are a Native American tribe from the Southern Plains of the present-day United States. Comanche people today belong to the federally recognized Comanche Nation, headquartered in La ...

, warriors fought the US Army to protect the last free herd of buffalo and to assert their autonomy. In the harsh winter of 1874 to 1875, many tribal camps were forced to surrender to various Indian agencies, and the supposed leaders of the Red River War were rounded up and sent to Fort Marion. From 1875 to 1878, the 71 men and one woman were under the command of

Richard Henry Pratt Brigadier General Richard Henry Pratt (December 6, 1840 – March 15, 1924) was an American military officer who founded and was longtime superintendent of the influential Carlisle Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He is associa ...

, who used the opportunity to give the Indians a Western education. He also provided the prisoners with basic art supplies, such as pencils, ink, crayons, watercolor paint, and paper. Twenty-six of the Fort Marion prisoners engaged in drawing. They were younger Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa men. Some of the most prolific and well-known artists include Paul Caryl Zotom (Kiowa);

David Pendleton Oakerhater David Pendleton Oakerhater (b. ca. 1847, d. August 31, 1931), also known as O-kuh-ha-tuh and Making Medicine, was a Cheyenne warrior and spiritual leader. He later became an artist and Episcopal deacon. In 1985, Oakerhater was the first Native A ...

or Making Medicine (Cheyenne);

Tichkematse Tichkematse, also called "Squint Eyes" or Quchkeimus (1857–1932) (Cheyenne), was an artist and collector who worked for the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC between 1879 and 1881. He is known for his ledger art, begun in the period from ...

or Squint Eyes (Cheyenne), who later worked for the

Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums and education and research centers, the largest such complex in the world, created by the U.S. government "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge". Founded ...

in Washington, DC; Wohaw (Kiowa);

Howling Wolf (Cheyenne) Howling Wolf (Cheyenne: Ho-na-nist-to, 1849–July 5, 1927) was a Southern Cheyenne warrior who was a member of Black Kettle's band and was present at the Sand Creek Massacre in Colorado. After being imprisoned in the Fort Marion in Saint Augu ...

; Etahdleuh Doanmoe (Kiowa); White Bear (Arapaho); Koba (Kiowa); and

Bear's Heart Bear's Heart (''Nock-ko-ist'', Cheyenne, 1851–1882) was a Cheyenne ledger book artist who was one of 72 Native Americans to be imprisoned in 1875 at Fort Marion, in St. Augustine, Florida. While imprisoned, he created a series of drawings on l ...

(Cheyenne). Tichtematse, Howling Wolf, White Bear, and Koba all continued drawing after their release from prison.

Cheyenne Dog Soldier artists

Following a July, 1869 battle at Summit Springs in northeastern Colorado, a ledger book was retrieved from the Cheyenne's burned village. A Cavalry trooper's notations on one of the pages states, "This book was captured by the Fifth U.S. Cavalry on their charge through the Indian Village July 10th 69." The collection of drawings are known as the ''Summit Springs Sketchbook'', or ''Dog Soldier Ledger Book''. The drawings in the book depict events and people from the period between the 1864 Sand Creek Massacre and the 1869 Summit Springs Battle.

Major artists

* Bear With Feathers - created 25 drawings in which he rendered the human figures, and it appears that another artist drew the horses. * White Bird - created seventeen drawings, fourteen of which were autobiographical. * Red Lance - created sixteen drawings, six of which are autobiographical, two depict Buffalo Robe, three depict White Horse, and the rest depict other warriors. Red Lance often drew horses in true profile. * Unidentified artist (Two Birds or Black Bear) - created ten pages. Two Birds is depicted with a complete eagle feather fall, and carrying a red shield; Black Bear is depicted with an upright headdress with several ermine tails.

Minor artists

White Horse created three drawings using the "X-ray technique". Pistol created three autobiographical drawings using the X-ray technique. Tomahawk created four highly graphic drawings. White Wolf created five drawings, three of which were autobiographical. Warrior X (unnamed) created three autobiographical drawings.

Amidon ledger book drawings

Dated from around 1885, the Amidon ledger book was named for the place it was found in

Amidon, North Dakota Amidon ( ) is a city in, and the county seat of Slope County, North Dakota, United States. Amidon was the smallest incorporated county seat at the 2000 census. When the 2020 census reported its population as 24, it became the second-smallest ...

, in a storage box at the Slope County Court House. The principle artist was Jaw (Ćehu′pa) or His Fight (Oki'cize-ta'wa), a

Hunkpapa The Hunkpapa (Lakota: ) are a Native American group, one of the seven council fires of the Lakota tribe. The name ' is a Lakota word, meaning "Head of the Circle" (at one time, the tribe's name was represented in European-American records as ...

(Húŋkpapȟa) Lakota man, who created 87 of the more than 107 drawings in the ledger book. After being scanned and inventoried, this historical object of cultural value was then dismantled as individual drawings that were sold on the open market to private collectors and institutions; a commercial trend in the 20th and early 21st centuries. Ross Frank, director of the UCSD Plains Ledger Art Project states that "Commercialization of ledger art starts with the Fort Marion artists. It's a process of the non-Indian world appropriating Indian art as trophies and souvenirs."

Other ledger books

Cheyenne

Cheyenne ledger books include:''Abbott Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne); ''Arrow's Elk Society Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Southern Cheyenne); '' Bear's Heart Ledger Book'' (Southern Tsisistas/Cheyenne) 24 drawings in graphite and crayon signed by the artist, c. 1875/1876; ''Bethel Moore Custer Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), c. 1881; ''Black Horse Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), c. 1877-1879; ''Cheyenne Bowstring Warrior Society'' (Cheyenne, Southern Cheyenne), pencil, colored pencil, c. 1850s; ''Coe-Cheyenne Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Southern Cheyenne); ''Dunham Album'' (Cheyenne, Southern Cheyenne), pencil and colored pencil; ''Ewers Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), pencil and colored pencil; ''Frank Henderson Ledger'' (Southern Inuaina and/or Southern Tsistisistas), c. 1882; ''Keeling Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), 115 drawings in pencil and colored pencil; ''Little Shield Ledger–Schøyen'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), a significant pictographic source for the Platte River Indian war. Drawings, name glyphs and cursive script by Little Shield and Black Moon, 1865–1879; ''Little Whirlwind Ledger'' also known as ''Prisoner's Ledger Drawing Book'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne) 1897-1898. Drawings by Little Whirlwind of the Tongue River Reservation, drawn while in prison (for a crime he did not commit) at the Miles City, Montana jail; ''Mad Bull Ledger'' (Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne); c. 1884 ''Northern Cheyenne Ledger-Kansas State Historical Society'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), drawn by Northern Cheyenne warrior-artists during imprisonment for alleged crimes in the Dodge City jail, pencil, colored crayons, red watercolor, black ink, c. 1878-1879; ''Pamplin Cheyenne/Arapaho Ledger'' (Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne); ''Porcupine Ledger-Schøyen'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), pencil and crayon drawings by Northern Cheyenne leader Porcupine in Dodge City Jail. Dodge City, Kansas, 1879; ''Rodolphe Petter Cheyenne Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Southern Cheyenne), drawn during the 1890s in pencil, pen and black ink; ''Sheridan Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Southern Cheyenne), pencil and colored pencil, "Artist C" is Arrow; ''Soldier's Diary Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), pencil, colored pencil, c. 1876; ''Spotted Hawk Ledger'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), drawn by Spotted Hawk in pencil and colored pencil in Miles City jail, Miles City, Montana, c. 1897; ''Tie Creek Ledger Book'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), Drawn in colored pencil, lead pencil, pen and ink, watercolor. Cover inscription by Jas Clayton states: "Pictures drawn by Wild Hog and other northern Cheyenne Indian Chiefs while in the Dodge City jail in May 1879"; ''Wild Hog Ledger-Kansas State Historical Society'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), c. 1879; ''Wild Hog Ledger-Schøyen'' (Cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne), drawn by Wild Hog, Kansas in 1879. Ledger book is smaller than most, approximately 3"x5".

Kiowa

Kiowa ledger books include: ''Bad Eye Sketchbook'' (Kiowa); ''Etadleuh Doanmoe Sketchbook'' - Rice County Historical Society (Kiowa); ''Finley-Kiowa Ledger No. 1'' (Kiowa); ''Finley-Kiowa Ledger No. 2'' (Kiowa); ''Kiowa Sketchbook'' - Davis Museum (Kiowa); ''Koba-Russel Sketchbook'' (Kiowa); ''Silver Horn Ledger Book'' – Nelson-Atkins (Kiowa); ''Zotom Sketchbook'' - Taylor Museum (Kiowa)

Lakota (Sioux)

Lakota (Sioux) ledger books include: ''Black Hawk Ledger'' (Lakota Sioux, Sans Arc); ''Black Road - Wilkins Ledger'' (Lakota Sioux); ''Fales-Freeman Brulé Ledger'' (Lakota (Sioux) Brulé; Lakota (Sioux) Sicangu); ''Goodwyn Ledger'' (Lakota Sioux); ''Jaw-Amidon Ledger'' (Lakota (Sioux) Hunkpapa); ''Jaw-Macnider Ledger'' (Lakota Sioux); ''Leatherwood/Scares the Enemy Ledger'' (Lakota (Sioux) Brulé); ''Rosebud School Album'' (Lakota Sioux–Brulé); ''Sitting Bull (Oglala) – Saville Ledger'' (Lakota Sioux); ''Sweetwater Ledger Book'' (Lakota Sioux); ''Walter Bone Shirt Ledger'' (Lakota Sioux–Brulé); ''Walter Bone Shirt Ledger'' - Mansfield Library (Lakota Sioux-Brulé)

Commodification and dispersal

In the 20th and 21st centuries, many of the ledger books were unbound, and the individual drawings were sold by commercial galleries and auction houses to individual collectors and institutions as "hot commodities in the art market" costing tens of thousands of dollars per drawing. The narrative order of the drawings in these books was lost when they were sold page-by-page, after having been stolen, scavenged or gifted by non-native people, thus losing "the integrity of the full ledger book". The roots of this commercialization can be traced to the late 19th century, when the founder of the

Carlisle Indian School The United States Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, generally known as Carlisle Indian Industrial School, was the flagship Indian boarding school in the United States from 1879 through 1918. It took over the historic Carlisle B ...

, Col. Richard Pratt began to teach entrepreneurial values to the Fort Marion prisoners of war. Artists held in this prison camp, such as Zotom and Howling Wolf were trained to create drawings on commission to "wealthy white patrons" in his efforts to assimilate the prisoners.

Easel arts

Missionaries, anthropologists, and tourists eagerly collected ledger books in the late 19th century. Carl Sweezy (Southern Arapaho, 1881–1953) and Haungooah (Silver Horn) (Kiowa, 1860–1940) both established professional careers as ledger artists. These early Southern Plains easel artists in turn inspired the

Kiowa Six The Kiowa Six, previously known as the Kiowa Five, is a group of six Kiowa artists from Oklahoma in the early 20th century, working in the "Kiowa style". The artists were Spencer Asah, James Auchiah, Jack Hokeah, Stephen Mopope, Monroe Tsatoke and L ...

. These artists painted with Western art-grade materials and met with international success when they exhibited their work in the 1928 International Art Congress in

Prague Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate ...

Czechoslovakia , rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי, , common_name = Czechoslovakia , life_span = 1918–19391945–1992 , p1 = Austria-Hungary , image_p1 ...

Contemporary interpretations

Numerous Northern and Southern Plains artists create ledger paintings, today, including many women artists despite Plains narrative figurative painting being a masculine art genre in the past.

Notable ledger artists

Historical

Amos Bad Heart Bull Amos Bad Heart Bull, also known as ''Waŋblí Wapȟáha'' (Eagle Bonnet) (ca. 1868-1913), was a noted Oglala Lakota artist in what is called Ledger Art. It is a style that adapts traditional Native American pictography to the new European medium ...

Oglala Lakota The Oglala (pronounced , meaning "to scatter one's own" in Lakota language) are one of the seven subtribes of the Lakota people who, along with the Dakota people, Dakota, make up the Sioux, Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (Seven Council Fires). A majority ...

* Black Hawk,

Sans Arc The Sans Arc, or Itázipčho (''Itazipcola'', ''Hazipco'' - ‘Those who hunt without bows’) in Lakota, are a subdivision of the Lakota people. Sans Arc is the French translation of the Lakota name which means, "Without bows." The translator o ...

Lakota Lakota may refer to: *Lakota people, a confederation of seven related Native American tribes *Lakota language, the language of the Lakota peoples Place names In the United States: *Lakota, Iowa *Lakota, North Dakota, seat of Nelson County *Lakota ...

Bow String Warrior Society Member * Jaw (Ćehu′pa) or His Fight (Okicize Tawa) (ca. 1853-1924),

Hunkpapa Lakota The Hunkpapa (Lakota: ) are a Native American group, one of the seven council fires of the Lakota tribe. The name ' is a Lakota word, meaning "Head of the Circle" (at one time, the tribe's name was represented in European-American records as ...

, created the Amidon Ledger *

Michael Horse Michael Horse (born Michael James Heinrich; December 21, 1949) is an American actor known for his portrayals of Native American characters in film and television. Early life Horse was born Michael James Heinrich near Tucson, Arizona, on Decem ...

Yaqui The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...

Mescalero Apache Mescalero or Mescalero Apache ( apm, Naa'dahéńdé) is an Apache tribe of Southern Athabaskan–speaking Native Americans. The tribe is federally recognized as the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, located in south-c ...

/ Zuni-descent * Annie Little Warrior (

, 1895–1966) * Red Horse (Lakota chief), Lakota, 42 ledger drawings of

Battle of the Little Big Horn The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, and also commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota Sioux, Nort ...

* St. David Pendleton Oakerhater,

Southern Cheyenne The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes are a united, federally recognized tribe of Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne people in western Oklahoma. History The Cheyennes and Arapahos are two distinct tribes with distinct histories. The Cheyenne (Ts ...

, member of the Bow String Warrior Society *

Silver Horn Silver Horn or Haungooah (1860–1940) was a Kiowa ledger artist from Oklahoma. Background Silver Horn was born circa 1860 to Agiati (Gathering Feathers) and Sa-Poodle (Traveling in the Rain) and was a member of the Kiowa Indian tribe of Oklah ...

Sitting Bull Sitting Bull ( lkt, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake ; December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota leader who led his people during years of resistance against United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock I ...

"Sitting Bull's ledger drawings."
''Smithsonian Institution Collections Search Center.'' (retrieved 14 Aug 2010) * White Horse, Kiowa * Yellow Nose, Ute, captured as a Child by Cheyenne. Dog Soldier Warrior Society Member

Contemporary

Sharron Ahtone Harjo Marcelle Sharron Ahtone Harjo (born 1945) is a Kiowa painter from Oklahoma. Her Kiowa name, Sain-Tah-Oodie, translates to "Killed With a Blunted Arrow." In the 1960s and 1970s, she and sister Virginia Stroud were instrumental in the revival of le ...

(Kiowa) * Arthur Amiotte (Oglala Lakota) * Sherman Chaddlesone (Kiowa, 1947–2013) *

Terran Last Gun Terran Last Gun (born 1989 in Browning, Montana) is a Native Americans in the United States, Native American visual artist. He is Piikani and a citizen of the Blackfeet Tribe of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation of Montana, a member of the Siksikai ...

(Piikani Blackfoot) *

Chris Pappan Chris Pappan (born 1971) is a Native American artist, enrolled in the Kaw Nation and of Osage and Cheyenne River Lakota descent. Early life and education Born in Colorado Springs, Colorado, Pappan studied at the Institute of American Indi ...

(Kaw/Osage/Cheyenne River Lakota) * Harvey Pratt (Cheyenne-Arapaho Tribes)

Gallery

File:Lakota Dead at Battle of Little Bighorn.jpg, Red Horse Ledger art of Lakota Killed at Little Bighorn. Published as Plate XLIV File:Annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution (1888) (19367428281).jpg, Red Horse Ledger art of Lakota killed at Little Bighorn. Published as Plate XLV File:Ledger drawing - Cheyenne and Pawnee or Osage fight.jpg, Ledger drawing - Cheyenne and Pawnee or Osage fight File:Maffet Ledger- Drawing MET DP318424.jpg, Maffet Ledger - Drawing Metropolitan Museum DP318424 File:Maffet Ledger- Drawing MET page66.jpg, Maffet Ledger - Drawing Metropolitan Museum page66; graphite, watercolor and crayon

References

External links

Ledger drawings in the Smithsonian Institution's collections

Ledger Art Collection at the Milwaukee Public Museum

Plains Indian Ledger Art Project
University of California, San Diego

Online exhibition from Smithsonian Institution {{DEFAULTSORT:Ledger Art Indigenous culture of the Great Plains Native American art Native American painting American art movements